知识老化是可悲的,知识老化的人遇到新的知识不是好奇地学习,而是下意识的反对,就是愚昧了。 比如说,满清人士没有见过火车那是无知或者知识老化,如果看见火车来了极力反对,就是愚昧,不只是反对,还骂街的,就是草包了。然而,我们知道,当年火车进入中国,是有很多满清大臣反对的,说把马给吓着了。 对现代哲学感兴趣的,建议去美国某大学哲学系听一堂课,看看哲学教授们(除了那些研究哲学史的)在研究些什么。不想去听课的,也可以在网上查查人家的论文。下面我简单介绍一下一篇50多年前的重要哲学论文,英文(翻译)标题比较具有刺激性《 The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language 》(《通过对语言的逻辑分析废掉形而上学》)。该论文开场写道: 【 The development of modern logic has made it possible to give a new and sharper answer to the question of the validity and justification of metaphysics. The researches of applied logic or the theory of knowledge, which aim at clarifying the cognitive content of scientific statements and thereby the meanings of the terms that occur in the statements, by means of logical analysis, lead to a positive and to a negative result. The positive result is worked out in the domain of empirical science; the various concepts of the various branches of science are clarified; their formal-logical and epistemological connections are made explicit. In the domain of metaphysics, including all philosophy of value and normative theory, logical analysis yields the negative result that the alleged statements in this domain are entirely meaningless. Therewith aradicaleliminationof metaphysics is attained, which was not yet possible from the earlier anti-metaphysical standpoints.】 由于其重要性,我简单翻译如下: 【现代逻辑的发展使我们对形而上学的有效性与合理性给出新的准确的答案成为可能。应用逻辑与知识理论的研究,... 得出了肯定或者否定的答案。肯定性的结果表现在实证科学领域... 在形而上学领域,包括所有价值与规范哲学,逻辑分析得出了否定的结果,那就是这些哲学的命题完全毫无意义。这样,形而上学被完全废除,这在之前是未能做到的】。 该论文接下来解释到”没有意义”不是说形而上学式哲学错误。一个学说有三种可能,right, wrong , 但还有一种可能,借用泡利的词汇就是“not even wrong"。metaphysics正是第三种, meaningless。运用现代逻辑工具,论文把各大哲学给检阅了一遍,就像用现代科学手段揭穿巫师的魔术。论文中有一段对哲学中的”本质”一词进行了剖析,这一招就将传统哲学基本废掉。另一段里,则把黑格尔的什么纯有、纯无的皇帝新衣给扒了下来---当成语义错误给简单处理了。 论文对笛卡尔的“我思故我在” (I think, therefore I am) 分析如下: 【We notice at once two essential logical mistakes: The first lies in the conclusion "I am." The verb "to be" is undoubtedly meant in the sense of existence here; for a copula cannot be used without predicate; indeed, Descartes' "I am" has always been interpreted in this sense . But in that case this sentence violates the above-mentioned logical rule that existence can be predicated only in conjunction with a predicate, not in conjunction with a name (subject, proper name).... The second error lies in the transition from "I think" to "I exist." If from the statement "P( a)" ("a has the property P") an existential statement is to be deduced then the latter can assert existence only with respect to the predicate P, not with respect to the subject a of the premise.... What follows from "I think" is not "I am" but "there exists some thing that thinks." 】 方枪枪贴出的对”我思故我在”的解释似乎符合上面批判中得出的逻辑分析结果,显然这是在分析哲学对笛卡尔的这个命题进行解剖批驳之后采取的辩解,却并非笛卡尔本人的原意。正如上面引用的论文所说,笛卡尔的原文非常清楚,是在讲自己的存在,而不是自己思维的存在。参见下面附文。 附:笛卡尔上下文(摘自我与帘卷西风的讨论) 其上下文【Accordingly, seeing that our senses sometimes deceive us, I was willing to suppose that there existed nothing really such as they presented to us; and because some men err in reasoning, and fall into paralogisms, even on the simplest matters of geometry, I, convinced that I was as open to error as any other, rejected as false all the reasonings I had hitherto taken for demonstrations; and finally, when I considered that the very same thoughts (presentations) which we experience when awake may also be experienced when we are asleep, while there is at that time not one of them true, I supposed that all the objects (presentations) that had ever entered into my mind when awake, had in them no more truth than the illusions of my dreams. But immediately upon this I observed that, whilst I thus wished to think that all was false, it was absolutely necessary that I, who thus thought, should be somewhat; and as I observed that this truth, I think, therefore I am (COGITO ERGO SUM), was so certain and of such evidence that no ground of doubt, however extravagant, could be alleged by the sceptics capable of shaking it, I concluded that I might, without scruple, accept it as the first principle of the philosophy of which I was in search.】 兜了N个圈子。我耐着性子读完之后,他说的是,一个人可以怀疑见到的一切外部事物都不过是梦境一般虚幻,但却不能怀疑自己本身的真实存在。但他对这一点的“证明”却是一个循环逻辑。 而且有一个明显的问题,他对什么叫“真实”或者”存在”没有进行定义。 总之,遇到这种所谓哲学,你只要揪住其关键名词的定义不放就可以揭穿。
《THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE》的作者EDWARD GIBBON把基督教作为罗马帝国灭亡的首要内因,而蛮族大规模进入当然是主要外因。其他的原因包括铅中毒---由于罗马人使用铅制管道引水,导致人口平均智商与素质降低。 当然,罗马帝国灭亡的原因很复杂,直到今天还有学者在研究这个问题。 1.罗马帝国灭亡不是因为人民起义 我曾经指出,频繁发生的农民起义是中国历史的一大特色。而罗马帝国极少发生“起义”。这是因为,罗马帝国名义上仍然是一个共和国,保留了议会制度,而且具有相当完善的法制(今天欧洲、乃至中国的法律界源自罗马法),被征服的地域的人民都被逐渐赋予公民权,具有一定的投票选举权与被选举权(包括选举地方一级首脑)(注一),对奴隶也有一定的人身保障。 因此,罗马帝国历史上大规模起义极为罕见。其中最为严重的是中东犹太人的宗教起义,但那发生在罗马帝国的最边缘地带,被简单镇压,对帝国影响甚微。 2. 罗马帝国灭亡不是因为好战 从屋大维开始,罗马帝国的疆域大体已经固定。希腊、西班牙、埃及、高卢都已成为罗马的省,这些省的人都被逐渐罗马化,这从他们中产生的罗马参议员与皇帝的数量就可以看出。罗马在埃及与希腊驻军极少,其主要任务是收税。 屋大维之后,特别是HADRIAN之后,罗马帝国基本是处于防守态势。以莱茵河为界,一边是文明化的高卢,一边是日耳曼蛮子。须知,当时的日耳曼人处于半原始的、分散的、非定居的部落状态。罗马的前线驻军的任务在于防止饥俄的日耳曼蛮子进入高卢进行掠夺与破坏。多瑙河一线也是类似的状况,罗马帝国处于防守,而不是进攻---因为日耳曼蛮子们完全赤贫,就算征服了也没有什么价值。 在东部,罗马帝国与波斯长期对峙,这牵制了罗马大量的兵力。彼此进行过多次战争,但罗马在此处的战略目标也是防守。 3. 罗马灭亡的原因之一是人民失去战斗意志 经过几百年的优越舒适的文明生活之后,罗马人逐渐失去了原有的斗志,而变得女性化。特别是信奉了基督教之后,罗马人基本成了羊羔子。戴奥克里辛预见到基督教的危害,但主要是以引导为主,并没有残酷取缔。康士坦丁将基督教合法化之后,教堂的巧取豪夺使国家、人民的大量财富被基督教庭所卷走(特别是富有家庭的女教徒经常是教堂的对象)。这导致国力空虚。 当哥特人包围罗马城,罗马人在饿得易子而食之后,唯一能做的是派出几名基督教士向蛮子们求和,蛮子们的条件是交出所有的黄金,可令其保命。罗马人乖乖地遵命了,蛮子们大笑而去。数年之后,蛮子们又来了,这次他们攻入城内,开始抢劫、强奸。罗马教廷的一位高僧Augustine写道,被强奸的罗马淑女们不应自杀,但也不能享受被强奸的乐趣(注二)。 谁能想到曾经征服天下,产生过西皮欧与凯撒的罗马人会沦落到如此无能呢? 其实日耳曼蛮子并不见得有多厉害。 东罗马曾经派出一支几千人的部队就夺回了罗马城 ,并给哥特蛮数万人的杀伤,哥特蛮国王被擒,蛮子投降。由此可见,蛮子们与凯撒时代相比,并没有增强多少战斗力(凯撒当年是几万打败几十万)。但问题是罗马人已经成了废物,东罗马无力单独支撑。 4. 与拜占庭王朝相比 罗马灭亡之后,拜占庭(东罗马)又继续存在了1千年。历史学者认为,拜占庭的长期存在是因为它一直保存了一支高效的军队,在军事技术与战略上相当先进,能够以较小的损耗击溃前来进攻的蛮子。拜占庭最后是被突厥人用巨型大炮打垮的。 5. 与中国的关系 罗马在技术上低于中国。匈奴人被汉王朝追剿之后进入欧洲,日耳曼蛮子为躲避匈奴进入罗马境内避难,随后发生暴乱,这是罗马灾难的开始。 6. 与清帝国的对比 忘战必亡。清帝国的灭亡也是如此,上百年没有打过仗,军备废弛,满兵疲弱,整天斗蛐蛐、唱京戏,镇压汉人是穷凶极恶,但根本不是洋枪的对手。满清先是被洋人打得屁滚尿流,然后被袁世凯洋枪吓得眼泪鼻涕直冒。 中国的重新崛起源自湘军。中国的今天富强是建立在湘军战胜列强的基础上。 注一:《后汉书--西域传》的相关文字如下:【 大秦国一名黎鞬,以在海西,亦云海西国。地方数千里,有四百余城。小国役属者数十。以石为城郭。列置邮亭,皆垩塈之。。 。其王日游一宫,听事五日而后 遍 。常使一人持囊随王车,人有言事者,即以书投囊中,王至宫发省,理其枉直。各有官曹文书。置三十六将,皆会议国事。其王无有常人,皆简立贤者。国中灾异及风雨不时,辄废而更立,受放者甘黜不怨。其人民皆长大平正,有类中国,故谓之大秦...】 注二: 针对大量罗马妇女在被西哥特人强奸后自杀, St. Augustine 在 《City of God》写道: “‘No one can dispute that if a woman remains firmly opposed to the act upon her, no violation of a woman is her fault as long as she cannot avoid it without sinning. But because a woman’s lust may be gratified during such an act, the woman will experience shame, even though she is pure of spirit and truly modest, because such an act cannot be experienced without some sensual pleasure, and people will believe that she gave her consent.’”